Question 1
Evaluate the interpretations in both of the two passages and explain which you think is more convincing as an explanation of the nature and extent of opposition during the rule of Alexander II.
Passage A
When peasants realised the terms of emancipation they were appalled. Peasants often refused to believe that this could be the long-awaited liberation; rumours persisted of a far more favourable ‘Golden Charter’, supposedly issued by the benevolent Tsar but hidden by evil nobles. The general reaction of serfs to the terms of emancipation was stunned surprise, followed by deep disappointment and resentment. In some cases, it led to violence and deaths. Peasants also resented the failure of the reforms to lead to equal treatment, for example in the reforms to the army.
Some opposition to the Reforms came from within the zemstva. In effect, the Tsar refused to recognise the population of Russia as citizens to whom the welfare of the country could be trusted. Rather they remained the Tsar’s subjects, subject to his will and without any right or possibility to influence any further political reform. Zemstvo members came to see themselves as representatives of the local people and not infrequently clashed with government administrators carrying out the orders of central government. The fundamental political reality of Russia – autocracy, the unlimited rule of the Tsar – remained untouched. The alienation of Russian society from its government grew steadily in the 1860s and 1870s. The government’s unwillingness to introduce even a conservative constitution meant that many middle-class professionals and businessmen could not see the tsarist state as supporting their interests.
Adapted from: T.R. Weeks, Across the Revolutionary Divide, Russia and the USSR 1861–1945 published in 2011.
Passage B
A new breed of liberal professors was appointed to succeed many of the conservatives in place before 1856. Soon professors and students were engaged in fundamental discussions about the future of Russia. Despite the reforms, the political climate in Russia grew more threatening for the regime. In particular, radical demands for a constitution and a national assembly were never granted. Students, who found their organisations banned and their favourite authors arrested, formed the basis of opposition in the 1860s. Many students went abroad to complete their studies. When they returned to Russia, they set up subversive organisations and distributed pamphlets, many written by the exiles.
A key part of this opposition was in the breaking away from traditional religious ideas. Free thinking led to a commitment to the cause of reform, and some of its believers came to believe that the cause was worth more than their own lives. The scene was set for a major confrontation between the Tsar and his opponents. In the 1870s, some idealistic young members of the gentry and intelligentsia were still determined to change the political system. Since they were in such a small minority, they ‘went to the people’ in search of popular support.
Adapted from: P. Oxley, Russia 1855–1991: From Tsars to Commissars, published in 2001.
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Answer
